I recently had to pull data off of one of my coworkers Macbook Pro when his laptop became un-bootable and he had no backup. I was able to boot the computer to single user mode using command+s, unfortunately things were corrupt and the volume didn't even have the fsck executable in /sbin/
second approach was to boot into the recovery volume since it has a clean set of tools there for diagnosing and repairing.
diskutility was pretty useless and spewed a bunch of errors for about 10 minutes which resulted in nothing. The only useful thing it did was tell the system drive was /dev/disk0s2
I then opened the terminal and issued the following command:
fsck_hfs -fy /dev/disk0s2
this promptly diagnosed the drive and determined it was corrupt. now for the repair
I used the following command:
diskutil repairvolume /dev/disk0s2
this did a bunch processing in the terminal and eventually said everything was clean and fixed. Do I believe it? no, so I'm going to recover what data I can while the volume is mounted.
I plugged in an external USB drive the computer and it was promptly mounted at /Volumes/USB
from the terminal i used the following types of commands to manually copy the important data to the USB volume:
cp -r /Users/someone/Folder /Volumes/USB/Folder
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